Mussolini, “Calcio”, and Propaganda

We live in a society that is entirely intertwined with rituals. We see this in football, a sporting phenomenon that resonates across the globe, moving amidst performance and affiliation rituals, aggressive rituals and unity rituals, as well as exhibition and celebration practices. Around the game of football, a comprehensive social fact has developed that transcends the boundaries of simple enjoyment to intertwine with the seriousness of life.

Dictator Benito Mussolini—or “Il Duce,” as he was known—was perhaps the first leader to use football to implement popular policies. According to Edgardo Martolio (Italianismo, 2020), Mussolini was also the first to see the World Cup as a form of propaganda for his government in the face of an international community that questioned the Italian politician’s methods (among them, forcing teachers to wear fascist uniforms in class and broadcasting summary executions of ideological opponents).

In Italy, under the fascist regime of Benito Mussolini, the success of the national team was exploited as propaganda. Elia Fiorenza, in his article "Italian Football as a Vehicle of Identity" (2025), explains that the historical evolution of football in Italy is closely intertwined with the social, political, and cultural dynamics of the country. This makes it a complex and diverse phenomenon.

Initially, football was an elite pastime among the aristocracy and the northern urban bourgeoisie. After World War I, the sport gained popularity and eventually served as a propaganda tool under the fascist regime. The choice of the term calcio, as opposed to the more common football, is a symbolic case of establishing an autonomous linguistic and cultural identity.

The word calcio comes from the verb calciare, which literally means “to kick.” Therefore, any physical “kick”—or “shot” in sports—is called calcio (Collins Dictionary). From that word’s meaning, “to kick,” we get the words football or soccer, because in these sports each player must un calcio al pallone, kick the ball.

The 1934 World Cup in Italy, organized by Mussolini, created an athletic supremacy aligned with fascist ideology, while the 1978 tournament in Argentina under the Videla junta used the spectacle to obscure the victims who went missing during the Dirty War.

According to Simon David Martin in "Football, Fascism and Fandom in Modern Italy" (2018), during the Fascist era in Italy (1922-1945), this sport became the target of systematic ideological operations aimed at legitimizing Italy's symbolic superiority and consolidating political consensus.

In that era, football gained a dimension of national cohesion while simultaneously expressing local identity, serving as a lens to interpret regional and social dynamics.

Before the final against Hungary, Mussolini sent a telegram to the Italian squad containing a two-word message: ’Vinci o muori!’ (Win or die!).

The Mussolini regime restructured the game of football in 1926 with the Carta di Viareggio. The Carta di Viareggio refers to the 1926 document that officially professionalized Italian football. This charter transformed football from an amateur hobby into a fully structured professional league system, allowing players to be transferred between regions.

Fascism became interested in football when calcio rapidly became the most significant mass cultural practice in Italy. In response to the game's rapid expansion across the country and the resulting chaos, fascism began to restructure the sport and shape it to suit the regime's needs as a tool of propaganda and national identity.

In 1934, FIFA selected Rome as the host for the Second World Cup, from May 27 to June 10. Mussolini saw an opportunity to showcase himself and promote fascism on the world stage. "The main goal of the World Cup is to demonstrate to the universe what the true fascist ideals of this sport are," said General Giorgio Vaccaro, the head of the Italian federation appointed by Mussolini.

Mohamed Keita wrote that Mussolini viewed the World Cup as an opportunity to promote fascist Italy on a global scale. He used the tournament as a propaganda tool to portray Italy as a strong, united, and prosperous nation under his leadership (Human Rights Foundation).

Thus, the Mussolini regime invested 3.5 million lire to organize the event by renovating and constructing several stadiums in eight cities: Bologna, Florence, Genoa, Milan, Naples, Rome, Trieste, and Turin. "I have the impression that it was not FIFA that truly organized the World Cup, but Mussolini," said the FIFA President at the time, Jules Rimet.

The World Cup culminated in a championship match with geopolitical stakes between fascist Italy and communist Czechoslovakia at the National Fascist Party Stadium (Stadio Nazionale del PNF) in Rome in the presence of Mussolini. Italy's victory was a major success for the Italian dictator, who used the occasion to make a grand display by presenting the Italian team with a specially made trophy: the Coppa del Duce, a colossal fascist-themed trophy much larger than the official trophy.

Four days after Italy was crowned the champion of the 1934 World Cup, Mussolini and the fascist dictator of Germany, Adolf Hitler, met in Venice for the first time. Sixteen months later, Mussolini invaded Ethiopia. Then, in 1937, he withdrew Italy from the League of Nations in protest against the international sanctions imposed for the invasion.

The 1938 World Cup also served as a platform for Mussolini to showcase power and propagate fascism. Before the global football festival took place, many political events occurred. For instance, at the end of March 1938, about ten weeks before the World Cup was scheduled to begin, the Austrian Football Federation sent a telegram to FIFA.

"Sorry (we) are canceling the registration for the World Cup. The Austrian football federation has disbanded. Not only the football federation," reads the telegram.

Austria did not participate in the World Cup in France because on March 12, 1938, Nazi Germany annexed Austria with the support of Mussolini. This annexation is known as the Anschluss (connection). The Chancellor of Austria at the time, Kurt Schuschnigg, was forced to resign due to threats from Hitler. The Austrian army offered no resistance, and the German troops were greeted with cheers by large, enthusiastic crowds.

Why is it called Anschluss? Because, by annexing Austria, Hitler aimed to unite the two countries. This is significant. Hitler was born in Braunau am Inn (April 20, 1889), just south of the border, and was raised in Linz and Vienna. Therefore, prior to this, Austrian Nazis assassinated Engelbert Dollfuss—a politician and dictator who served as Chancellor of Austria from 1932 to 1934—to pave the way for the unification of the two countries.

Austria's withdrawal increases the chances for Italy to retain the crown. Moreover, in 1936, the Italian team won the gold medal at the Olympics. Mussolini always viewed sporting events as a platform to promote his fascism, to propagate to the international community that Italy is strong and prosperous under his leadership.

And indeed, defending champion Italy advanced smoothly. In the quarterfinals, Italy faced host France. Because their uniforms were identical, Mussolini ordered the Italian team to wear all-black (maglia nera) to show strength. This was the symbol of the Italian Fascist Party. Italy won the match 3-1.

Italy advanced to the final. Before the final against Hungary, Mussolini sent a telegram to the Italian squad containing a two-word message: “Vinci o muori!” (Win or die!).

"Rather than die," the Italian players fought fiercely and ultimately won the match with a score of 4-2 to secure their second consecutive World Cup.

Thus, Italy's victory at the 1938 World Cup in France is declared as the pinnacle of sports achievement for Fascist Italy. According to Lando Ferretti, one of the theorists of fascist sports, this success united the Italian diaspora behind the regime, while also symbolizing the resurgence of the fascist Italian nation.

Up to this point, we note that historically, football has been utilized around the world to defend various political, economic, and/or cultural interests, both internal and external to the state. On one hand, this first type of utilization has a stronger political identity character.

However, in the latest transformation, it has increased along with the globalization movement and also involves transnational economic interests.